biostudies-literatureUnknown9(32)Yun MIndividuals often assess past decisions by comparing what was gained with what would have been gained had they acted differently. Thoughts of past alternatives that counter what actually happened are called "counterfactuals." Recent theories emphasize the role of the prefrontal cortex in processing counterfactual outcomes in decision-making, although how subcortical regions contribute to this process remains to be elucidated. Here we report a clear distinction among the roles of the orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum and midbrain dopamine neurons in processing counterfactual outcomes in monkeys. Our findings suggest that actually gained and counterfactual outcome signals are both processed in the cortico-subcortical network constituted by these regions but in distinct manners and integScience advanceseadh2831https://www.ebi.ac.uk/biostudies/studies/S-EPMC10411892biostudies-literatureDistinct roles of the orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum, and dopamine neurons in counterfactual thinking of decision outcomes.PMC10411892Yun MNejime MKawai TYamada HKunimatsu JKim HRMatsumoto MfalseDistinct roles of the orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum, and dopamine neurons in counterfactual thinking of decision outcomes.Individuals often assess past decisions by comparing what was gained with what would have been gained had they acted differently. Thoughts of past alternatives that counter what actually happened are called "counterfactuals." Recent theories emphasize the role of the prefrontal cortex in processing counterfactual outcomes in decision-making, although how subcortical regions contribute to this process remains to be elucidated. Here we report a clear distinction among the roles of the orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum and midbrain dopamine neurons in processing counterfactual outcomes in monkeys. Our findings suggest that actually gained and counterfactual outcome signals are both processed in the cortico-subcortical network constituted by these regions but in distinct manners and integ2023-01-01T00:00:00Z2023 Aug2025-04-26T11:32:00.164Z2025-04-06T13:43:11.415ZS-EPMC104118923755653610.1126/sciadv.adh2831