biostudies-literatureYang SNational Natural Science Foundation of ChinaNational Natural Science Foundation of China (National Science Foundation of China)190https://www.ebi.ac.uk/biostudies/studies/S-EPMC10761963biostudies-literatureUnknown15(1)Reconstructing the spatial evolution of languages can deepen our understanding of the demic diffusion and cultural spread. However, the phylogeographic approach that is frequently used to infer language dispersal patterns has limitations, primarily because the phylogenetic tree cannot fully explain the language evolution induced by the horizontal contact among languages, such as borrowing and areal diffusion. Here, we introduce the language velocity field estimation, which does not rely on the phylogenetic tree, to infer language dispersal trajectories and centre. Its effectiveness and robustness are verified through both simulated and empirical validations. Using language velocity field estimation, we infer the dispersal patterns of four agricultural language families and groups, encompasNature communicationsInferring language dispersal patterns with velocity field estimation.PMC1076196332070577T2122007Zhang MSun XYang SJin LfalseInferring language dispersal patterns with velocity field estimation.Reconstructing the spatial evolution of languages can deepen our understanding of the demic diffusion and cultural spread. However, the phylogeographic approach that is frequently used to infer language dispersal patterns has limitations, primarily because the phylogenetic tree cannot fully explain the language evolution induced by the horizontal contact among languages, such as borrowing and areal diffusion. Here, we introduce the language velocity field estimation, which does not rely on the phylogenetic tree, to infer language dispersal trajectories and centre. Its effectiveness and robustness are verified through both simulated and empirical validations. Using language velocity field estimation, we infer the dispersal patterns of four agricultural language families and groups, encompas2024-01-01T00:00:00Z2024 Jan2026-07-14T18:12:06.326Z2025-04-05T12:46:35.009ZS-EPMC107619633816783410.1038/s41467-023-44430-5