biostudies-literatureUnknown645(8080)Kalinin KPArtificial intelligence (AI) and combinatorial optimization drive applications across science and industry, but their increasing energy demands challenge the sustainability of digital computing. Most unconventional computing systems^1-7 target either AI or optimization workloads and rely on frequent, energy-intensive digital conversions, limiting efficiency. These systems also face application-hardware mismatches, whether handling memory-bottlenecked neural models, mapping real-world optimization problems or contending with inherent analog noise. Here we introduce an analog optical computer (AOC) that combines analog electronics and three-dimensional optics to accelerate AI inference and combinatorial optimization in a single platform. This dual-domain capability is enabled by a Nature354-361https://www.ebi.ac.uk/biostudies/studies/S-EPMC12422976biostudies-literatureAnalog optical computer for AI inference and combinatorial optimization.PMC12422976Rowstron AClegg JHCanakci BRajmohan SKremer HKhedekar SKelly DJFalck FRuhle VBallani HGladrow JKalinin KPO'Shea GBerloff NGCletheroe DBraine LGkantsidis CParmigiani FBrennan GRahmani BChu JHansen MKleewein JPickup LfalseAnalog optical computer for AI inference and combinatorial optimization.Artificial intelligence (AI) and combinatorial optimization drive applications across science and industry, but their increasing energy demands challenge the sustainability of digital computing. Most unconventional computing systems^1-7 target either AI or optimization workloads and rely on frequent, energy-intensive digital conversions, limiting efficiency. These systems also face application-hardware mismatches, whether handling memory-bottlenecked neural models, mapping real-world optimization problems or contending with inherent analog noise. Here we introduce an analog optical computer (AOC) that combines analog electronics and three-dimensional optics to accelerate AI inference and combinatorial optimization in a single platform. This dual-domain capability is enabled by a 2025-01-01T00:00:00Z2025 Sep2026-06-03T02:21:27.56Z2026-04-23T03:10:24.413ZS-EPMC124229764090358510.1038/s41586-025-09430-z