biostudies-literatureVanaki SU.S. Department of Health & Human Services | NIH | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)89https://www.ebi.ac.uk/biostudies/studies/S-EPMC12820046biostudies-literatureUnknown9(1)Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which a behavior is reinforced by reward. Operant conditioning has multiple temporal domains, ranging from short-term, lasting a few minutes, to long-term, persisting for at least 24 h. The extent to which short- and long-term operant conditioning memories rely on shared or separate neural mechanisms is poorly understood. Voltage-sensitive dye (VSD) imaging has been used previously to record the activity of a large number of neurons simultaneously in the buccal ganglion to measure changes in neuronal activity during short-term operant conditioning. We examined neuronal activity using VSD 24 h after operant conditioning and compared these results with those from short-term operant conditioning to assess the extent to which short-term and long-term operant conditioning share common neural correlates. Non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) isolated the temporal signature of neuronal activity. Similar to short-term operant conditioning, long-term operant conditioning resulted in an earlier recruitment of an NMF module that corresponded to the retraction phase of feeding behavior, which indicated that the temporal signatures of short- and long-term operant conditioning share similar features. In contrast to short-term operant conditioning, long-term operant conditioning engaged a larger population of retraction neurons in a region of the buccal ganglion containing sensory neurons. These findings suggest that a more extensive network is involved in long-term operant conditioning memory.Communications biologyLow-dimensional signatures of neuronal activity associated with long-term operant conditioning in Aplysia.PMC12820046NS101356Vanaki SAazhang BGonzalez NOByrne JHNeveu CLMomohara YfalseLow-dimensional signatures of neuronal activity associated with long-term operant conditioning in Aplysia.Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which a behavior is reinforced by reward. Operant conditioning has multiple temporal domains, ranging from short-term, lasting a few minutes, to long-term, persisting for at least 24 h. The extent to which short- and long-term operant conditioning memories rely on shared or separate neural mechanisms is poorly understood. Voltage-sensitive dye (VSD) imaging has been used previously to record the activity of a large number of neurons simultaneously in the buccal ganglion to measure changes in neuronal activity during short-term operant conditioning. We examined neuronal activity using VSD 24 h after operant conditioning and compared these results with those from short-term operant conditioning to assess the extent to which short-term and long-term operant conditioning share common neural correlates. Non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) isolated the temporal signature of neuronal activity. Similar to short-term operant conditioning, long-term operant conditioning resulted in an earlier recruitment of an NMF module that corresponded to the retraction phase of feeding behavior, which indicated that the temporal signatures of short- and long-term operant conditioning share similar features. In contrast to short-term operant conditioning, long-term operant conditioning engaged a larger population of retraction neurons in a region of the buccal ganglion containing sensory neurons. These findings suggest that a more extensive network is involved in long-term operant conditioning memory.2025-01-01T00:00:00Z2025 Dec2026-06-06T19:20:29.039Z2026-06-04T03:12:43.096ZS-EPMC128200464139847110.1038/s42003-025-09357-1