biostudies-literatureNunes MFundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologiae202500369https://www.ebi.ac.uk/biostudies/studies/S-EPMC12856815biostudies-literatureUnknown91(2)Iron gall inks (IGIs) played a central role as a writing medium in Western countries, leaving behind a vast legacy and significant conservation challenges. This study presents a twofold methodological approach to investigate the physicochemical behaviour of IGI-based formulations found in historical Portuguese sources. Fresh and 6-month naturally aged precipitates and supernatant solutions (dried inks) were characterised, and the impact of IGIs on Whatman paper over ageing was studied using attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FT-IR) spectroscopy, Raman and Mössbauer spectroscopies and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Iron(II) sulphates comprised the primary crystalline phase in the precipitates, while the dried inks consisted of distinct Fe(III)-polyphenol (PPh) complexes.ChemPlusChemFrom Ink to Mockup: An Integrated Study of Historical Gall Ink Formulations and Their Impact on Paper.PMC1285681510.54499/LA/P/0132/202010.54499/UID/PRR/04449/2025LA/P/0006/2020Grants PTDC/ART-HIS/32327/2017UID/Multi/04349/202010.54499/2022.01486.PTDCUIDB/00195/2020Vieira BJCFerreira TCosta APCabral MEANogueira HISNunes MMitchell SGWaerenborgh JCVieira JCClaro AfalseFrom Ink to Mockup: An Integrated Study of Historical Gall Ink Formulations and Their Impact on Paper.Iron gall inks (IGIs) played a central role as a writing medium in Western countries, leaving behind a vast legacy and significant conservation challenges. This study presents a twofold methodological approach to investigate the physicochemical behaviour of IGI-based formulations found in historical Portuguese sources. Fresh and 6-month naturally aged precipitates and supernatant solutions (dried inks) were characterised, and the impact of IGIs on Whatman paper over ageing was studied using attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared (ATR-FT-IR) spectroscopy, Raman and Mössbauer spectroscopies and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Iron(II) sulphates comprised the primary crystalline phase in the precipitates, while the dried inks consisted of distinct Fe(III)-polyphenol (PPh) complexes.2026-01-01T00:00:00Z2026 Feb2026-06-14T03:09:58.891Z2026-06-14T03:08:22.375ZS-EPMC128568154161438010.1002/cplu.202500369