biostudies-literatureWang JNIDDK NIH HHSNational Cancer InstituteNCI NIH HHS429-438https://www.ebi.ac.uk/biostudies/studies/S-EPMC8096665biostudies-literatureUnknown30(4)<b>Introduction:</b> Cholangiocarcinomas (CCAs) are biliary epithelial tumors with rising incidence over the past 3 decades. Early diagnosis of CCAs remains a significant challenge and the majority of patients present at an advanced stage. CCAs are heterogeneous tumors and currently available standard systemic therapy options are of limited effectiveness. Immune checkpoint inhibition (ICI) has transformed cancer therapy across a spectrum of malignancies. However, the response rate to ICI has been relatively disappointing in CCAs owing to its desmoplastic tumor microenvironment (TME).<b>Areas covered</b>: Tumor microenvironment of CCAs consists of innate and adaptive cells, stromal cells, and extracellular components (cytokines, chemokines, exosomes, etc.). This intricate microenvironment hExpert opinion on investigational drugsTargeting the tumor microenvironment in cholangiocarcinoma: implications for therapy.PMC8096665K08 CA236874P50 CA210964P30 DK084567Ilyas SWang JfalseTargeting the tumor microenvironment in cholangiocarcinoma: implications for therapy.<b>Introduction:</b> Cholangiocarcinomas (CCAs) are biliary epithelial tumors with rising incidence over the past 3 decades. Early diagnosis of CCAs remains a significant challenge and the majority of patients present at an advanced stage. CCAs are heterogeneous tumors and currently available standard systemic therapy options are of limited effectiveness. Immune checkpoint inhibition (ICI) has transformed cancer therapy across a spectrum of malignancies. However, the response rate to ICI has been relatively disappointing in CCAs owing to its desmoplastic tumor microenvironment (TME).<b>Areas covered</b>: Tumor microenvironment of CCAs consists of innate and adaptive cells, stromal cells, and extracellular components (cytokines, chemokines, exosomes, etc.). This intricate microenvironment h2021-01-01T00:00:00Z2021 Apr2025-04-04T23:03:20.33Z2025-04-04T23:03:20.33ZS-EPMC80966653332297710.1080/13543784.2021.1865308