Money and Microbes: A Global Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Currency Contamination.

ABSTRACT: Money passes through numerous hands daily, creating an ideal medium for the accumulation and transfer of pathogenic microorganisms. Despite this, a comprehensive synthesis of contamination levels on currency is lacking.

Aim

This systematic review and meta-analysis assessed the prevalence and types of microbial contamination on money.

Methods

A systematic search was conducted for studies published up to December 2024. The review followed the PRISMA guidelines. Pooled prevalence estimates were calculated via a random-effects model. Heterogeneity between studies was assessed via the I² statistic, and sensitivity analyses were performed.

Results

A total of 35 studies met the eligibility criteria. The overall pooled prevalence of microbial contamination on money was

SUBMITTER: Appiah PO 

PROVIDER: S-EPMC12813264 | biostudies-literature | 2026

REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature